Practical implementation of strength training to improve the performance of world-class cross-country skiers

Current scientific evidence suggests that sport-specific heavy strength training could be successfully included in elite endurance athletes’ training program. In fact, positive effects of short-term interventions, without any negative side-effects, have been shown repeatedly. However, there is a lack of long-term studies investigating the concurrent development of strength and endurance capacities, and there is a limited understanding of the mechanisms underlying the complex mix of strength and endurance training in the daily training plan of elite endurance athletes. In this context, cross-country skiers have shown a unique ability to build up and sustain a relatively large and strong muscle mass whilst, at the same time, having developed some of the highest maximal oxygen uptakes ever measured in humans. Accordingly, this study explores and discusses how world-class cross-country skiers implement strength training in their long-term endurance training schedule. The presented examples provide support to the scientific evidence from short-term studies, with heavy strength training being included approximately two times per week to build up strength in the preparation period and once per week to maintain strength in the competition period. Furthermore, individualized, movement-specific strength programs aiming to improve skiing technique, exercise economy/ efficiency and to delay fatigue is employed. However, the systematic use of core/stabilization exercises by the best skiers has lack of scientific support, which is also the case for the placement of strength sessions within the weekly training puzzle, the order of strength exercises during a session, as well as the influence of mental abilities and technical execution during strength sessions

Training und Coaching von weiblichen vs. männlichen Athleten auf ihrem Weg zu Gold? Einschätzungen erfolgreicher Trainer von Eliteathleten

This scientific short report investigated how successful male coaches perceive gender differences in training characteristics and coaching practice among medal-winning endurance athletes. Ten male Norwegian coaches with a track record of coaching both female and male endurance world-class athletes (total of 269 Olympic, World and European Championship medals) participated in semi-structured interviews. Inductive thematic analysis revealed that all coaches mainly adjusted their key training and coaching principles to the individual athlete, rather than gender. A coach-driven and athlete-centered individualization process was essential to create trust, mutual understanding, and optimal training content. Potential gender/sex differences were perceived in four main themes: sport-specific competition demands, physiological, psychological and interpersonal factors (e.g., gender of the coach). In this context, all coaches described how training and coaching of female athletes differs from that of men, thus considering male athletes as the reference group and male physiology and psychology as the norm. Furthermore, societal factors such as a male-dominant sports culture and underlying gender stereotypes were suggested as amplifiers of gender differences. Accordingly, our report highlights the need for female perspectives in elite sports and invites further in-depth investigations of the identified gender/sex differences within the respective disciplines of training science, physiology, psychology and sociology.publishedVersio

Training und Coaching von weiblichen vs. männlichen Athleten auf ihrem Weg zu Gold? Einschätzungen erfolgreicher Trainer von Eliteathleten

This scientific short report investigated how successful male coaches perceive gender differences in training characteristics and coaching practice among medal-winning endurance athletes. Ten male Norwegian coaches with a track record of coaching both female and male endurance world-class athletes (total of 269 Olympic, World and European Championship medals) participated in semi-structured interviews. Inductive thematic analysis revealed that all coaches mainly adjusted their key training and coaching principles to the individual athlete, rather than gender. A coach-driven and athlete-centered individualization process was essential to create trust, mutual understanding, and optimal training content. Potential gender/sex differences were perceived in four main themes: sport-specific competition demands, physiological, psychological and interpersonal factors (e.g., gender of the coach). In this context, all coaches described how training and coaching of female athletes differs from that of men, thus considering male athletes as the reference group and male physiology and psychology as the norm. Furthermore, societal factors such as a male-dominant sports culture and underlying gender stereotypes were suggested as amplifiers of gender differences. Accordingly, our report highlights the need for female perspectives in elite sports and invites further in-depth investigations of the identified gender/sex differences within the respective disciplines of training science, physiology, psychology and sociology

The Training Characteristics of World-Class Male Long-Distance Cross-Country Skiers

Purpose: To investigate the training characteristics of world-class long-distance cross-country skiers. Methods: Twelve world-class male long-distance cross-country skiing specialists reported training from their best season, through a questionnaire and follow-up interviews. Training data were systemized by training form (endurance, strength, and speed), intensity [low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT)], and exercise mode, followed by a division into different periodization phases. Specific sessions utilized in the various periodization phases were also analyzed. Results: The annual training volume was 861 ± 90 h, consisting of 795 ± 88 h (92%) of endurance training, 53 ± 17 h (6%) of strength training, and 13 ± 14 h (2%) of speed training. A pyramidal (asymptotic) endurance training distribution was employed (i.e., 88.7% LIT, 6.4% MIT, and 4.8% HIT). Out of this, 50–60% of the endurance training was performed with double poling (DP), typically in the form of a daily 3- to 5-h session. A relatively evenly distributed week-to-week periodization of training load was commonly used in the general preparation period, whereas skiers varied between high-load training weeks and competition weeks, with half the training volume and a reduced amount of DP during the competition period. Conclusions: To match the specific demands of long-distance cross-country skiing, specialized long-distance skiers perform relatively long but few training sessions and use a pyramidal intensity distribution pattern and a large amount of training spent using the DP technique

Comparison of Short-Sprint and Heavy Strength Training on Cycling Performance

Copyright © 2019 Kristoffersen, Sandbakk, Rønnestad and Gundersen. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.Purpose: To compare the effects of short-sprint training (SST) and heavy-strength training (HST) following a 4-week strength-training period on sprint and endurance capacities in well-trained cyclists. Methods: Twenty-eight competitive cyclists (age 29 ± 6 years) with maximal oxygen uptake (VO˙ 2max) of 61.1 ± 5.9 mL·min−1 ·kg−1 participated. After a 4-weeks preparation strength-training period, the participants were randomized to add either HST or SST to their usual endurance training for the subsequent 6 weeks. Body composition, VO˙ 2max and power output at blood lactate concentration ([La−]) of 4 mmol·L −1 , as well as a 100 min cycling test including 6 and 30-s sprints, 60 min cycling at [La−] of 2 mmol·L −1 and 5-min all-out cycling were performed before the 4-week preparation strengthtraining period, and before and after the 6-week intervention period. In addition, 1 repetition maximum (RM) in half-squat and 55-m maximal sprints on the cyclists’ own bikes were measured before and after the 6-week intervention. Results: SST was superior to HST in 6-s sprint performance, both in a fresh state (4.7 ± 2.6% vs. 1.1 ± 3.5%) and after prolong cycling (6.1 ± 1.8% vs. 1.8 ± 4.2%), in 30-s sprint (3.7 ± 2.8% vs. 1.3 ± 2.5%) and in 55-m seated sprint on own bike (4.3 ± 2.1% vs. 0.2 ± 1.8%) (all p < 0.002). HST induced a larger 1RM improvement in the half-squat test than SST (9.3 ± 3.6% vs. −3.9 ± 3.8%; p < 0.001). No group differences were revealed in the 5-min all-out test, VO˙ 2max, power output at 4 mmol·L −1 [La−], or in gross efficiency. Conclusion: SST led to a greater increase in average and peak power output on all sprint tests compared to HST, whereas HST led to a greater increase in maximal strength. No group differences were found in relative changes in endurance capacities. Altogether, our results show a high degree of specificity in the adaptations of both SST and HST.publishedVersio

The Training Characteristics of World-Class Distance Runners: An Integration of Scientific Literature and Results-Proven Practice

In this review we integrate the scientifc literature and results-proven practice and outline a novel framework for understanding the training and development of elite long-distance performance. Herein, we describe how fundamental training characteristics and well-known training principles are applied. World-leading track runners (i.e., 5000 and 10,000 m) and marathon specialists participate in 9±3 and 6±2 (mean±SD) annual competitions, respectively. The weekly running distance in the mid-preparation period is in the range 160–220 km for marathoners and 130–190 km for track runners. These diferences are mainly explained by more running kilometers on each session for marathon runners. Both groups perform 11–14 sessions per week, and ≥80% of the total running volume is performed at low intensity throughout the training year. The training intensity distribution vary across mesocycles and difer between marathon and track runners, but common for both groups is that volume of race-pace running increases as the main competition approaches. The tapering process starts 7–10 days prior to the main competition. While the African runners live and train at high altitude (2000–2500 m above sea level) most of the year, most lowland athletes apply relatively long altitude camps during the preparation period. Overall, this review ofers unique insights into the training characteristics of world-class distance runners by integrating scientifc literature and results-proven practice, providing a point of departure for future studies related to the training and development in the Olympic long-distance events.publishedVersio

Effects of including sprints during prolonged cycling on hormonal and muscular responses and recovery in elite cyclists

This study investigated the acute effects of including 30‐second sprints during prolonged low‐intensity cycling on muscular and hormonal responses and recovery in elite cyclists. Twelve male cyclists (VO2max, 73.4 ± 4.0 mL/kg/min) completed a randomized crossover protocol, wherein 4 hours of cycling at 50% of VO2max were performed with and without inclusion of three sets of 3 × 30 seconds maximal sprints (E&S vs E, work‐matched). Muscle biopsies (m. vastus lateralis) and blood were sampled at Pre, immediately after (Post) and 3 hours after (3 h) finalizing sessions. E&S led to greater increases in mRNA levels compared with E for markers of fat metabolism (PDK4, Δ‐Log2 fold change between E&S and E ± 95%CI Post; 2.1 ± 0.9, Δ3h; 1.3 ± 0.7) and angiogenesis (VEGFA, Δ3h; 0.3 ± 0.3), and greater changes in markers of muscle protein turnover (myostatin, ΔPost; −1.4 ± 1.2, Δ3h; −1.3 ± 1.3; MuRF1, ΔPost; 1.5 ± 1.2, all P < .05). E&S showed decreased mRNA levels for markers of ion transport at 3h (Na+‐K+ α1; −0.6 ± 0.6, CLC1; −1.0 ± 0.8 and NHE1; −0.3 ± 0.2, all P < .05) and blunted responses for a marker of mitochondrial biogenesis (PGC‐1α, Post; −0.3 ± 0.3, 3h; −0.4 ± 0.3, P < .05) compared with E E&S and E showed similar endocrine responses, with exceptions of GH and SHBG, where E&S displayed lower responses at Post (GH; −4.1 ± 3.2 μg/L, SHBG; −2.2 ± 1.9 nmol/L, P < .05). Both E&S and E demonstrated complete recovery in isokinetic knee extension torque 24 hours after exercise. In conclusion, we demonstrate E&S to be an effective exercise protocol for elite cyclists, which potentially leads to beneficial adaptations in skeletal muscle without impairing muscle recovery 24 hours after exercise.acceptedVersio

Pole length influences performance during on-snow skating in female cross-country skiers

Abstract Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of pole length on performance and technique selection during a simulated skating cross-country (XC) skiing competition on snow in female XC skiers. Methods Nine female XC skiers and biathletes (VO2max 63.6 ± 6.2 mL/min/kg, age 22.9 ± 3.5 years, body height 1.69 ± 0.1 m and body mass 60.8 ± 4.6 kg) completed two 5-km skating time-trail with maximal effort. The athletes had a minimum 4.5 h of rest between the two races, which were performed in a random order: one with self-selected poles (89.0% ± 0.6% of body height) and one with 7.5 cm increased pole length (94.0% ± 0.5% of body height). Speed in set terrain sections was determined and the selection of sub-technique was self-reported immediately after each race based on a detailed review of the entire track. Results Skiers performed on average 7.1 ± 7.1 s (P = 0.029) faster with the long poles, with this difference occurring during the first 200 m and in the uphill parts of the track, in which ~ 5% more G3 and ~ 5% fewer G2 sub-techniques were chosen (both PpublishedVersio

The influence of exercise modality on training load management

Purpose: To provide novel insight regarding the influence of exercise modality on training load management by: 1) providing a theoretical framework for the impact of physiological and biomechanical mechanisms associated with different exercise modalities on training load management in endurance exercise, and 2) comparing effort-matched low-intensity training sessions performed by top level athletes in endurance sports with similar energy demands. Practical Applications and Conclusions: The ability to perform endurance training with manageable muscular loads and low injury risks in different exercise modalities are influenced both by mechanical factors, as well as muscular state and coordination which interrelate in optimizing power production while reducing friction and/or drag. Consequently, the choice of exercise modality in endurance training influence effort beyond commonly used external and internal load measurements and should be considered alongside duration, frequency and intensity when managing training load. By comparing effort-matched low-to-moderate intensity sessions performed by top level athletes in endurance sports, this study exemplifies how endurance exercise with varying modalities leads to different tolerable volumes. For example, the weight-bearing exercise and high impact forces in long-distance running puts high loads on muscles and tendons, leading to relatively low training volume tolerance. In speed skating, flexed knee and hip position required for effective speed skating leads to occlusion of thighs and low volume tolerance. In contrast, the non-weight-bearing, low-contraction exercises in cycling or swimming allows for large volumes in the specific exercise modalities. Overall, these differences have major implications on training load management in sports.acceptedVersio

How do the effects of an 8-week intervention influence subsequent performance development in cross-country skiers?

Author's accepted version (postprint).This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Human Kinetics in International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance (IJSPP) on 7/2/22.Available online: doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2021-0356Purpose: To investigate how the effects of increased low- vs. high-intensity endurance training in an 8-week intervention influenced the subsequent development of performance and physiological indices in cross-country skiers. Methods: Forty-four (32 men and 14 women) junior cross-country skiers were randomly assigned into a low- (LITG, n=20) or high-intensity training group (HITG, n=24) for an 8-week intervention followed by 5 weeks of standardized training with similar intensity distribution, and thereafter 14 weeks of self-chosen training. Performance and physiological indices in running and roller-ski skating were determined pre-intervention, after the intervention (POST-1), and after the standardized training period (POST-2). Roller-ski skating was also tested after the period of self-chosen training. Results: No between-group changes from pre-intervention to POST-2 were found in peak speed when incremental running and roller-ski skating (P=0.83 and 0.51), although performance in both modes was improved in LITG (2.4% [4.6%] and 3.3% [3.3%], P<0.05) and in roller-ski skating for HITG (2.6% [3.1%], P<0.01). While improvements in VO2max running and VO2peak roller-ski skating were greater in HITG than LITG from pre-intervention to POST-1, no between-group differences were found from pre-intervention to POST-2 (P=0.50 and 0.46), although VO2peak roller-ski-skating significantly improved within HITG (5.7% [7.0%], P<0.01). No changes neither within nor between groups were found after the period of self-chosen training. Conclusions: Differences in adaptations elicited by a short-term intervention focusing on low- vs. high-intensity endurance training had little or no effects on the subsequent development of performance or physiological indices following a period of standardized training in cross-country skiers.acceptedVersio